Midterm Study Guide

STUDY GUIDE FOR MIDTERM

Chapter 1

Sensation and Perception

Our world is alive with stimuli—all the objects and events that surround us. Sensation and perception are the processes that allow us to detect and understand these various stimuli. It may seem strange to think about it this way, but we do not actually experience these stimuli directly; rather, our senses allow us to get information about aspects of our environment, and we then take that information and form a perception of the world. Sensation is the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment and transforming those energies into neural energy. Physical energy such as light, sound, and heat is detected by specialized receptor cells in the sense organs—eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue. When the receptor cells register a stimulus, the energy is converted to an electrochemical impulse or action potential that relays information about the stimulus through the nervous system to the brain.

The brain gives meaning to sensation through perception. Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it makes sense. The process of attempting to understand the stimulation we receive and ascribe meaning to it. Receptor cells in our eyes record—that is, sense—a sleek silver object in the sky, but they do not “see” a jet plane. Recognizing that silver object as a plane is perception. Sensing and perceiving give us views of the setting sun, the sounds of a rock concert, the touch of soft caresses, the taste of sweets, and the fragrance of flowers. Of all the various stimuli that are present in your environment right now, you are able to sense and perceive only some of them. Every species is adapted to sense and perceives stimuli that matter to that species’ ability to survive in its environment.

Psychologists distinguish between bottom-up and top-down processing in sensation and perception. In bottom-up processing, sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation. Bottom-up processing means taking in information and trying to make sense of it. An example of bottom-up processing might be the way you experience a song the first time you hear it: You listen carefully to get a “feel” for it. In contrast, top-down processing starts with cognitive processing at the higher levels of the brain; in top-down processing we begin with some sense of what is happening and apply that framework to information from the world. You can experience top-down processing by “listening” to your favorite song in your head right now. As you “hear” the song in your mind’s ear, you are engaged in perceptual experience.

Selective Attention

The world holds a lot of information to perceive. At this moment you are perceiving the letters and words that make up this sentence. Now gaze around you and fix your eyes on something other than this book. Afterward, curl up the toes on your right foot. In each of these circumstances, you engaged in selective attention, which involves focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others. A familiar example of selective attention is the ability to focus on one voice among many in a crowded airline terminal or noisy restaurant. Psychologists call this common occurrence the cocktail party effect.

Positive Psychology

 

Positive Psychology holds a great deal of promise because it completely shifts the focus from being ill to being well. The Positive Psychology movement reflects a shift in emphasis within the field which emphasizes the study of strengths rather than weaknesses, of wellness rather than illness. Practitioners of positive psychology look at emotional health as opposed to pathology. Positive Psychology is the study of ultimate human functioning. The study of healthy aspects of human functioning that makes us effective in our lives.

We feel the way we think - Going back to Covey, "The way you see the problem, is the problem." So what you say to yourself about anything determines how you feel. Last, just because two things occur together, that alone does not offer proof that one has caused the other. Correlation does not equal causation! Human beings have the tendency to perceive a correlation or relationship between things that often really does not exist. This is an illusory or spurious correlation. If we think there is a relationship between variables, we will unconsciously use selective perception to detect and recall only those circumstances that confirm our belief.

Frames and Reframing

We use frames of reference to organize and understand our world, our perceptions, and our experiences. They help us to make sense of them. Frames are also known as paradigms and mental maps. We are genetically predisposed to develop frames of reference that are the product of our past experiences. We develop these frames from what we learn from our parents, our peers, our schools, the media and our culture. These experiences from the past shape our current beliefs, values, expectations, points of view, philosophies and worldviews. Frames of reference or paradigms, then, are the end product of a lifelong accumulation of beliefs, values, expectations, points of view, philosophies and worldviews. Once you form a frame of reference, it has a tendency to become more fixed with time. We learn as we become more educated and wiser that there are no "right" answers, just "good" questions and "good" answers.

Facts about Frames

Some frames of reference remain in flux (that is, they are constantly changing), but most become fixed with time. The more a frame of reference is used, and the more successful it is in helping you derive meaning from your experiences, the more rigid the frame becomes.

The degree to which you are able to recognize that you are operating within a frame or perspective and shift that frame when necessary, the better you are able to solve problems and adjust to the changes you will encounter in life. In short, awareness of your frames enhances your flexibility of thought and ability to solve problems.

While frames of reference help us make sense of the world, they also limit our world to a great extent. For example, if you had negative previous experiences traveling you may learn to be afraid of traveling. The new paradigm that states, “think outside the box” demonstrates this concept.

According to noted scientist Thomas Kuhn, all scientific advancements begin with a paradigm shift. He defined it as "a change in the overriding theoretical framework that governs a scientific discipline" (Kuhn, 1962). Paradigm shifts are to science as reframes are to cognition. Paradigm shifts are how we reframe previous perceptions, understandings and ideas.

Paradigm shifts occur in everyday life when we put new frames on what we see. A paradigm shift is a change in the way we interpret/understand an experience or situation.

New Frames = New Paradigms

"When you change the way you look at things, the things you look at change."

– Albert Einstein

Paradigm shifts do not only occur in science, they also occur in our own personal lives.

Einstein once said that "the significant problems we face today cannot be solved at the same level of thinking we were at when we created them." When we put new frames on what we see, we begin to perceive something quite different. It is as if our reality changes. We are able to find solutions and explanations we weren’t able to find before.

Reframing: the process of actively changing perspectives to create paradigm shifts. Reframing involves changing the way you think and ultimately the way you act. Reframing involves changes in the brain. The process works like this: When you first encounter something new, multiple neurons within the network engage. By the sixth time you encounter that new thing, the brain has created an efficient pathway for it and the work involved only uses a few neurons. Reframing involves a "reconfiguration of the well-traveled network"

When you actively seek to reframe your problems, you will see that the more you do it, the easier it becomes. This is possible due to neuroplasticity, the capacity of the brain to change its internal structure by reorganizing neural pathways based on new experiences.

Functional Fixedness

 

Functional fixedness: the tendency to get locked into thinking about using objects only in the most conventional or familiar ways.

Neuroplasticity

Neuroplasticity, the capacity of the brain to change its internal structure by reorganizing neural pathways based on new experiences.

The newest research on the brain supports the idea of neuroplasticity. Rosenberg (2009) suggests that neuroplasticity is an elegant word for the idea that the brain is highly malleable and has an "ability to adopt new functions, reorganize itself, and make new neural connections, all as a function of experience." In fact, she suggests that "learning IS neuroplasticity." New research also supports the idea of neurogenesis, the finding that new neurons form with experience. Therefore, there is cutting-edge research that supports the idea that the brain can be rewired with experience. In other words, you CAN change. Reframing can help you rewire neural pathways. You can change not only how you think, but how you feel, and ultimately how you behave.

 ELEMENTS OF WELL-BEING: PERMA (Page 12)

 

1. Positive Emotion (P)

For us to experience well-being, we need positive emotion in our lives. Any positive emotion such as peace, gratitude, satisfaction, pleasure, inspiration, hope, curiosity, or love falls into this category – and the message is that it's really important to enjoy yourself in the here and now, just as long as the other elements of PERMA are in place.

2. Engagement (E)

When we're truly engaged in a situation, task, or project, we experience a state of flow: time seems to stop, we lose our sense of self, and we concentrate intensely on the present.

This feels really good! The more we experience this type of engagement, the more likely we are to experience well-being.

3. Positive Relationships (R)

As humans, we are "social beings," and good relationships are core to our well-being. Time and again, we see that people who have meaningful, positive relationships with others are happier than those who do not. Relationships really do matter!

4. Meaning (M)

Meaning comes from serving a cause bigger than ourselves. Whether this is a specific deity or religion, or a cause that helps humanity in some way, we all need meaning in our lives to have a sense of well-being.

5. Accomplishment/Achievement (A)

Many of us strive to better ourselves in some way, whether we're seeking to master a skill, achieve a valuable goal, or win in some competitive event. As such, accomplishment is another important thing that contributes to our ability to flourish.

KEYTERMS

Ambiguous Figures – images capable of being perceived in more than one fashion depending on one’s frame of reference. (Page 7)

Brain Reserve – An increase in the connections between neurons believed to help the brain become more resistant to age-related or disease-related damages. (Page 19)

Neurons – A specialized cell that conducts impulses through the nervous system. (Page 19)

Neuroplasticity – The capacity of the brain to change its internal structure by reorganizing neural pathways based on new experiences. (Page 18)

Paradigm – A particular way of seeing things. Also, referred to a perspective, schema or frame. (Page 5)          

Paradigm Shift – A change in the overriding theoretical framework that governs a scientific discipline; a sudden or gradual change in how on perceives a situation. (Page 8)

Perception – The process of attempting to understand the stimulation we receive and ascribe meaning to it. (Page 4)

Positive Psychology – The study of the healthy aspects of human function that make us effective in our lives; the study of optimal human functioning. (Page 10)

Reframing – The process of actively changing perspective to create paradigm shifts. (Page 14)

Schema – An equivalent term for paradigm, a way of seeing things. (Page 5)

Selective Attention – The focusing of consciousness on a partial aspect of all that we are capable of perceiving. (Page 4)

Selective Perception – The tendency to perceive that which we expect to be there. (Page 4)

Sensation – The process of receiving stimuli from our surroundings. (Page 4)

Synapse – The space between neurons where one neuron communicates with another. (Page 19)

THE NUN STUDY

Intellectual engagement seems to protect against dementia;

Use it or lose it;

Importance of “brain reserve”

Chapter 2

Determinism vs. Free Will

In psychology, one continuum we look at is the continuum between determinism on one side and free will on the other. On one end of the continuum is the concept of determinism, which refers to the theoretical belief that who we are is largely governed by outside forces. Determinism is a philosophy stating that for everything that happens there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could happen. There are three main deterministic theories: Biological (Genetic), Freudian (Psychic), and Behavioral (Environmental)

At the other end of the continuum is the concept of free will, which refers to the theoretical belief that who we are is a result of the choices we make. There are three main free will oriented psychological theories: Existential, Humanistic, and Cognitive-Behavioral.

Proactivity vs. Reactivity

The concepts of proactivity and reactivity were developed by Stephen Covey in his landmark book, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. According to Covey, people tend to fall on a continuum ranging from highly "proactive" individuals to highly "reactive" individuals.

Proactivity is a view that holds that our behavior is a function of our decisions, not our conditions, and that we have the initiative and the responsibility to make things happen. Proactive people act. They recognize that they are able to choose their responses. Their behavior is a product of their own conscious choice, based on their values. Proactivity involves choosing new behaviors to meet new desires or needs to expert control in life.

Reactivity is a view that holds that our behavior is a function of our life conditions, not our decisions. Reactive people react to their circumstances, conditions, or conditioning. Their behavior is a product of their conditions, based on feelings. Responsive to stimulation.

Internal Locus of Control vs. External Locus of Control

Internal Locus of Control

Individuals with an internal locus of control believe they have personal control over events and can directly influence what happens to them through their behavior.

•       Belief in responsibility for the ultimate outcomes of life

•       Internals believe they are responsible for the ultimate outcomes in their life.

•       Internals do not wait for fate to lead them in directions; rather they take active control over their own lives.

   For Covey, a sample of an internal locus of control is “proactivity”.

External Locus of Control

Individuals with an external locus of control believe that the outcomes of events are largely determined by factors outside their personal control (such as powerful others or luck).

•       Externals see themselves as victims with little or no control over their lives.

•       Externals believe that other people, situations or events are responsible for the things that happen in their life.

 

•       Externals believe that many of the things they want in life are out of reach or that other people are holding them back.

•       For Covey, a sample of an external locus of control is “reactivity.”

Cognitive Strategies

Self-talk

What you think to yourself is called self-talk. All human beings have a running commentary of thoughts in response to stimuli. At times, our self-talk is fragmented and consists of words, impressions, and ideas. At other times, our self-talk is very deliberate, as when we set out to think out a problem or consider someone's behavior.

Effective individuals monitor their self-talk to ensure that they do not engage in irrational thinking. They avoid catastrophizing, understand the sequence of their self-talk, understand the assumptions they make about the world, and monitor their thoughts for common logical errors. Effective individuals avoid catastrophizing. You are catastrophizing when you give yourself messages that a situation is too awful or overwhelming to bear or that the worst is about to happen.

To boost your self-esteem you should also monitor the content of your self-talk.

•       People with low self-esteem continually present themselves with negative messages or observations about themselves.

•       People with high self-esteem give themselves positive, self-affirming messages.

•       Individuals with high self-esteem tend to attribute their failures to external causes (factors beyond their control) and their successes to internal causes (ability and effort).

•       People with low self-esteem tend to attribute their failures to internal causes (weaknesses and shortcomings) and their successes to external causes (luck and other factors beyond their control).

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is commonly defined as the belief in one's capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome.

Self-efficacy is your belief in your capability to produce a desired effect by our own actions.

How to increase Self-efficacy

 use positive memories of past

 model successful people

imagine yourself behaving effectively

be reassured or persuaded by others you trust and by experts

Optimism

Optimism: A tendency to expect the best possible outcome or dwell on the most hopeful aspects of a situation.

Benefits of an Optimistic Outlook

More effective coping with life stressors

For men, greater overall health decades later

Predicted by optimism scores in college

More productive at work

Greater physical health

Lower vulnerability to depression

More satisfaction in interpersonal relationshi

Superior athletic performance

Stronger academic performance

Personality theories

Deterministic theories:

  Biological (Genetic)

o   Biological approaches suggest that genetics are responsible for personality. Research on heritability suggests that there is a link between genetics and personality traits.

  Freudian (Psychic)

o   Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud’s deterministic theory of personal formation based on the first five to six year of growth.

  Behavioral (Environmental)

o   Behaviorism – a deterministic theory of personality that states that humans are a product of our conditioning, learning histories and, or current reinforcement schedules.

Free will oriented psychological theories:

  Existential

o   Existential living: in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e. living for the moment).

  Humanistic

o   Humanists – Our personalities and our behavior are not so much a product of our conditioning and conditions but of our choices in response to them; developed by Maslow and Rogers.

  Cognitive-Behavioral.

o   Cognitive Behaviorism – The study of humans should not focus solely on overt behavior but must include our covert behavior, that is our thoughts and self-talk that precede our behavior.

Research Method

Research method is a systematic approach to answering scientific questions.

Experimental Research: Experiments are generally the studies that are the most precise and have the most weight to them due to their conclusive power. They are particularly effective in proving hypotheses about cause and effect relationships between variables. A hypothesis is a prediction of how one variable relates to another. There are two types of hypotheses, null and directional. The null is a prediction that there will not be any change in the dependent variable when the researcher changes the independent variable. The directional hypothesis states that the change in the independent variable will induce a change in the dependent variable. In a true experiment, all variables are held constant except for the independent variable, which is manipulated. Thus, any changes in the experimental groups can be solely attributed to the action of the independent variable. This is called being objective.

Correlational Research: This method of statistical analysis shows the relationship between two variables. For example, research has shown that alcohol dependence correlates with depression. That is to say, the more alcohol people consume the more depressed they become. On the other hand, it could be the other way around as well: the more depressed people become, the more likely they are to consume alcohol.

Correlational studies are studies in which the investigator analyzes the relationships among variables that were in place before the study, without manipulating those variables.

Descriptive Research: used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather it addresses the "what" question (What are the characteristics of the population or situation being studied?) The characteristics used to describe the situation or populations are usually some kind of categorical scheme also known as descriptive categories. For example, the periodic table categorizes the elements. Scientists use knowledge about the nature of electrons, protons and neutrons to devise this categorical scheme. We now take for granted the periodic table, yet it took descriptive research to devise it. Descriptive research generally precedes explanatory research. For example, over time the periodic table’s description of the elements allowed scientists to explain chemical reaction and make sound prediction when elements were combined. Hence, research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to as the basis of a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity.

KEYTERMS

Behaviorism – A deterministic theory of personality that states that humans are a product of our conditioning, learning histories and, or current reinforcement schedules.

Catastrophizing – Giving oneself the message that a situation is too awful or overwhelming to bear or that the worst is about to happen.

Cognitive Behaviorism – The study of humans should not focus solely on overt behavior but must include our covert behavior, that is our thoughts and self-talk that precede our behavior.

Cognitive Restructuring – A powerful strategy for refuting irrational beliefs and changing your self-talk.

Concordance Rate – The probability that two individuals display the same trait or characteristic.

Correlation – A non-causal relationship between any two variables; the greater the degree of relationship the higher the correlation.

Defensive Pessimism – A strategy that anticipates a negative outcome and then takes steps to avoid that outcome.

Delusional Thinking – Believing in ideas that are not reality based like those involving fear of persecution.

Determinism – A belief in cause and effect relationships and by implication the absence of free will in human affairs.

Dispositional Pessimism – A strategy of negative thinking in general, based on thought about the past, leading to negative expectations about the future.

External Locus of Control – An individual’s belief that they are a victim, buffeted and abused by external events over which they have no control.

Explanatory Style – A perspective one has in dealing with the world such as optimism or pessimism.

Free Will – The ability of humans to ignore so-called determining factors and freely choose how and when to act.

Global Citizen – An individual who places emphasis on individual choice, in a collective setting, for the greater good.

Hallucinations – Seeing, hearing, or feeling things that aren’t really there.

Humanists – Our personalities and our behavior are not so much a product of our conditioning and conditions but of our choices in response to them; developed by Maslow and Rogers.

Internal Locus of Control – An individual’s belief that they are responsible for the ultimate outcomes of their life; proactivity.

Locus of Control – The nature of how an individual perceives their ability to control their responses to life events; on a continuum from external to internal.

Optimism – The habit of perceiving and interpreting potential problems in a way that gives life meaning and a sense of control; looking for ways to be happy and satisfied with life.

Pessimism – The opposite of optimism; use attributions that are internal, stable and global.

Proactivity – The ability to initiate and choose your responses to life events.

Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud’s deterministic theory of personal formation based on the first five to six year of growth.

Psychotic Episode – Loss of contact with conventional reality marked by hallucinations and delusional thinking.

Schizophrenia – A severe disorder of thought and emotions where individuals have difficulty differentiating traditional reality from their own internal fantasies or fears.

Self-Efficacy – A perception of perceived competence.

Self-Talk – The running commentary that goes on in your head during the course of the day.

Spurious Correlation – The human tendency to perceive a correlation or relationship between things that really does not exist.

 Chapter 3

 

Attitude of Gratitude

Attitude of Gratitude - showing appreciation for what you already have; showing constant thanks for what you receive and give; the sincere feeling of thankfulness.  An example of an attitude of gratitude is expressing thanks for the well-being of your family or for the income that you receive daily. 

Research on happiness, knowing what is strongly, moderately, and not related to happiness

Happiness: We all want to be happy, and happiness is useful for other things, too.

•       Happiness improves physical health, improves creativity, and even enables you to make better decisions. (It's harder to be rational when you're unhappy.)

Factors that don't correlate much with happiness include: age, gender, parenthood, intelligence, physical attractiveness, and money (as long as you are above the poverty line).

Factors that correlate moderately with happiness include: health social activity, and religiosity.

Factors that correlate strongly with happiness include: genetics, love and relationship satisfaction, and work satisfaction.     

Positive Emotions

In her on broaden and build theory, Fredrickson (1998) suggests that positive emotions serve an evolutionary purpose.

Negative emotions serve to alert us to danger.

Positive emotions let us know when we feel safe.

When we feel safe, Fredrickson suggests that we are free to focus on the future which allows us to "broaden and build" upon our existing skills. In other words, positive emotions serve to help us focus on the future in such a way as to enhance our skills and knowledge.

Positive emotions encourage big picture processing and a global perspective to problem solving.

Negative emotions promote small detail processing which is less conducive to solving problems.

Positive emotions have a tendency to expand our ideas and actions

Negative emotions have the opposite effect of constricting our actions and choices.

Positive emotions also play an important role in longevity and health.

Research has shown that cheerful individuals live longer than grumpy ones. Nun studies have shown that the happiest nuns outlived the least happy nuns by an average of ten years (Danner, Snowdon, & Friesen, 2001). Some feel that happiness is as significant a factor in health as being a smoker versus being a non-smoker. Other studies have found that positive emotions make us less susceptible to common colds (Cohen, 2003).on positive emotions

Hedonic Treadmill and Eudemonia

 

The term hedonic refers to the fact that even though external forces are constantly changing our lives and our life goals, happiness is a relatively constant state. The idea of relative levels of happiness dates back to the time of Stoic and Epicurean philosophers in ancient Greece. Situations may get better or worse, but we will usually report about the same levels of happiness or sadness.

Distinguishing Hedonia and Eudemonia

 

Waterman (2007) theorizes that the hedonic treadmill only functions for a certain level of happiness, in this case hedonia.

With hedonia, happiness is the goal sought and the greater extent of pleasured experienced by the person the better. There is no consideration given to the source or depth of happiness a person is encountering.

Hedonia involves feeling excited, relaxed, and content, losing track of time, and forgetting personal problems.

Eudemonia, by contrast, might not produce similar treadmill effects (Waterman 2007). 

Eudemonia is the positive subjective state that is the product of the pursuit of self-realization. It focuses on the extent to which certain activities are associated with a person developing their potentials, with investing a great deal of effort, with having clear goals, and with feeling challenged in the pursuit of a goal. Challenge of an activity or goal may become diminished and cause the subject to become bored, but the subject would just have to increase the level of the challenge before them. Overall, it is necessary to note that different levels and means and happiness will persist for varying amounts of time, suggesting that eudemonic happiness might have a more meaningful and lasting impact on a person than hedonic pleasure.

 

KEYTERMS

Attitude of gratitude – Involves noticing, appreciating, and being thankful for the people, events, and even the small benefits of your life.

Broaden and build – The theory which explains the wide ranging, beneficial effects of positive emotions. Because positive emotions let us know that we are safe, they enable us to engage in activities geared for the future

Duchenne smile – A full face smile where not only does your mouth turn up, but the corners of your eyes crinkle, as well. That is you smile with your eyes as well as your mouth.

Duration neglect – The fact that the length of an experience influences how we interpret the positive or negative impact of experiences.

Eudemonia – A complex concept which refers to being true to your inner self and increasing happiness by identifying your own signature strengths and virtues and living your life in accordance with these.

Extraversion – The ability of an individual to be outgoing and comfortable around other people.

Flow – The stoppage of time that occurs when discovering and using your own strength and virtues and becoming totally absorbed in the process.

Forgiveness – The ability to let go of negative energy attached to bad memories without forgetting what happened or allowing yourself to again be abused.

Hedonic capacity – The ability of an individual to experience positive emotions based on both genetics as well as environment and learning histories.

Hedonic treadmill – The pursuit of momentary pleasures.

Hedonism – The fact that we tend to inevitably adapt to fortunate circumstances and take these for granted.

Mindfulness – The ability to see the present moment as new, a practice of shifting perspective to see things in a fresh light.

Peak-end theory – Explains the fact that our recollections of pleasure are influenced by the intensity of the experience, as well as how it ended.

Positive affectivity – Another name for an individual’s hedonic capacity.

Progress paradox – Despite the fact that life has improved for most Americans in terms of standard of living and health, our self-reported happiness have not kept pace with the increase in health, wealth, and education.

Positive emotions – Being able to know what it is to be happy and to experience an enduring sense of well-being.

Savoring – The awareness of pleasure that comes from paying deliberate conscious attention to your experience of pleasure.

Undoing – Theory which purposes that positive emotions can literally function as an antidote to undo the psychological effects of negative emotions.

Chapter 4

Self-esteem and Self-Concept

Effective individuals have high self-esteem. Self-esteem is a measure of how much you value yourself and feel useful and necessary in the world. It is important to understand what self-esteem is, how it is formed, and how you eventually form your self-concept based on it. Authors often use self-esteem and self-concept interchangeably and inconsistently. However, there is a significant difference between them.

•       Self-Esteem refers to the relationship you have with yourself and the degree to which you regard yourself in a positive or negative light.

•       Self-esteem reflects how you judge and evaluate yourself. It is based on an internalization of how others see you (parents, friends, peers).

•       Self-esteem begins to form early in life and is based on the opinions of others. It is defined as an attitude of self-acceptance, self-approval and self-respect (Goldenson, 1991) and as "the judgments we make about our own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments" (Berk, 2008, p. 199).

Several areas have been identified which help determine self-esteem (Fleming & Courtney, 1984), including:

o   physical appearance

o   scholastic ability

o   work performance

o   popularity and social skills

o   athletic abilities

Self-Concept is your paradigm about yourself and it is reflected in how you see and describe yourself. It is defined as the individual's conception and evaluation of himself, including his values, abilities, goals, and personal worth (Goldenson, 1991) or as "the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is" (Berk, 2008, p. 199).

•       Your self-concept is formed later in life when you begin evaluating what others think of you and add your own confirming or contradictory information.

Example of both:

 "I am a student" reflects your self-concept as a student, whereas "I am a good student" reflects your self-esteem.

Pathological critic, where it comes from and how to change it

At times, individuals develop a pathological critic, which is a negative inner voice that attacks and judges our actions and ourselves: The quality of this inner voice reflects the quality of your relationship with yourself. If we criticize and demean ourselves, we get stuck repeating the same behavior or mistakes over and over again. In the long run, we lower our self-esteem.

2

A negative inner voice that attacks and judges you

A misguided critic or coach

Rewards and reinforcement are more effective ways to learn

Parenting Styles and the effect they have on self-esteem

Parenting Styles

  Authoritarian Parenting – A restrictive, punitive style of parenting focusing on following rules and assuming that the child is incompetent.           

  Authoritative Parenting - Parents who are involved, warm, and nurturing while at the same time setting meaningful limits and controls for the child.

  Permissive Parenting (Laissez-Faire)

  Permissive Indifferent - Parenting that is not particularly harsh or punitive, but treats child as if she is not particularly important uninvolved in child's life.

  Permissive Indulgent - Parent who are involved and loving with their children but fail to set limits or provide meaningful controls over their behavior.

Effects on Self-Esteem

•       Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem.

•       Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in children who are happy, capable and successful (Maccoby, 1992).

•       Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school.

Carl Rogers Theory and his Concept of Inferiority Complex

According to Carl Rogers, when parents base their love on their children’s behavior, children develop conditions of worth, meaning they only think they are worthwhile or lovable if they behave in certain ways or meet certain standards. The ideal self is just that — an ideal. It should serve as a coach or guide in your continued search for growth. People with high self-esteem realize that their real self is always in the process of growing and changing — that we move toward our ideal self but never quite really reach it. Carl Rogers (1959) described this as “The Process of Becoming.”

  

Unconditional positive regard leads to positive self-esteem

  Conditional positive regard leads to conditions of worth

  Inferiority Complex – Describes an individual with chronically low self-esteem.

Humanists such as Carl Rogers see people as basically good or healthy -- or at very least, not bad or ill.  In other words, they see mental health as the normal progression of life, and mental illness, criminality, and other human problems, as distortions of that natural tendency, which Rogers called self-actualization.  Unlike Maslow, Rogers uses the term to refer to the drive every creature has to become "all that it can be," much like Adler's idea of striving for perfection.

Rogers tells us that organisms naturally know what is good for them.  Evolution has provided us with the senses, the tastes, the discriminations we need:  When we hunger, we find food -- and not just any food, but food that tastes good.  Food that tastes bad is likely to be spoiled, rotten, and unhealthy. That's what good and bad tastes are -- our evolutionary lessons made clear!  This is called organismic valuing.

Among the many things that we instinctively value is positive regard, Rogers umbrella term for things like love, affection, attention, nurturance, and so on.  It is clear that babies need love and attention. In fact, it seems that they die without it.  They certainly fail to thrive -- i.e. become "all they can be."

Another thing -- perhaps peculiarly human -- that we value is positive self-regard, that is, self-esteem, self-worth, a positive self-image.  We achieve this positive self-regard by experiencing the positive regard others show us over our years of growing up.  Without this self-regard, we feel small and helpless, and again we fail to become all that we can be!

Rogers believes that, if left to their own devices, animals will tend to eat and drink things that are good for them, and consume them in balanced proportions.  Babies, too, seem to want and like what they need.  Somewhere along the line, however, we have created an environment for ourselves that is significantly different from the one in which we evolved.  In this new environment are such things as refined sugar, flour, butter, chocolate, and so on, that our ancestors in Africa never knew. 

These things have flavors that appeal to our organismic valuing -- yet do not serve our actualization well.  This new, artificial environment is our society, with its rituals, its organizations, its technologies.

Our society also leads us astray with conditions of worth.  As we grow up, our parents, teachers, peers, the media, and others, only give us what we need when we show we are “worthy,” rather than just because we need it. We get a drink when we finish our class, we get something sweet when we finish our vegetables, and most importantly, we get love and affection if and only if we “behave!”

Getting positive regard on “on condition” Rogers calls conditional positive regard.  Because we do indeed need positive regard, these conditions are very powerful, and we bend ourselves into a shape determined, not by our organismic valuing or our actualizing tendency, but by a society that may or may not truly have our best interests at heart.  A “good little boy or girl” may not be a healthy or happy boy or girl!

Over time, this “conditioning” leads us to have conditional positive self-regard as well.  We begin to like ourselves only if we meet up with the standards others have applied to us, rather than if we are truly actualizing our potentials.  And since these standards were created without keeping each individual in mind, more often than not we find ourselves unable to meet them, and therefore unable to maintain any sense of self-esteem.

The aspect of your being that is founded in the actualizing tendency, follows organismic valuing, needs and receives positive regard and self-regard, Rogers calls the real self.  It is the “you” that, if all goes well, you will become.

On the other hand, to the extent that our society is out of synch with the actualizing tendency, and we are forced to live with conditions of worth that are out of step with organismic valuing, and receive only conditional positive regard and self-regard, we develop instead an ideal self.  By ideal, Rogers is suggesting something not real, something that is always out of our reach, the standard we can’t meet.

This gap between the real self and the ideal self, the “I am” and the “I should” is called incongruity.  The greater the gap, the more incongruity.  The more incongruity, the more suffering.  In fact, incongruity is essentially what Rogers means by neurosis:  Being out of synch with your own true self.

But Rogers is just as interested in describing the healthy person.  His term is "fully-functioning," and involves the following qualities:

1.  Openness to experience.  This is the opposite of defensiveness.  It is the accurate perception of one's experiences in the world, including one's feelings.  It also means being able to accept reality, again including one's feelings.  Feelings are such an important part of openness because they convey organismic valuing.  If you cannot be open to your feelings, you cannot be open to actualization.

2.  Living in the here-and-now.  Rogers, as a part of getting in touch with reality, insists that we not live in the past or the future -- the one is gone, and the other isn't here yet!  The present is the only reality we have.  Mind you, that doesn't mean we shouldn't remember and learn from our past.  Neither does it mean we shouldn't plan or even day-dream about the future.  Just recognize these things for what they are:  memories and dreams, which we are experiencing here in the present.

3.  Organismic trusting.  We should allow ourselves to be guided by the organismic valuing process.  We should trust ourselves; do what feels right, what comes natural.  Keep in mind that Rogers meant trust your real self, not the neurotic self so many of us have become!  In other words, organismic trusting assumes you are in contact with the actualizing tendency.

4.  Freedom.  Rogers felt that it was irrelevant whether or not people really have free will: We feel very much as if we do.  This is not to say, of course, that we are free to do anything at all:  We are surrounded by a deterministic universe, so that, flap my arms as much as I like, I will not fly like Superman.  It means that we feel free when choices are available to us. 

Rogers says that the fully-functioning person acknowledges that feeling of freedom, and takes responsibility for his choices.

5.  Creativity.  If you feel free and responsible, you will act accordingly, and participate in the world.  A fully-functioning person, in touch with actualization, will feel obliged by their nature to contribute to the actualization of others, even life itself.  This can be through creativity in the arts or sciences, through social concern and parental love, or simply by doing one's best at one's job.

What are mistakes, when and why they happen, and their effects?

Mistakes are an action or judgment that is misguided or wrong.

Mistakes are essential steppingstones. They’re vital for growth and creativity. “If we don’t focus on process over product, we cannot be innovators. We cannot learn about ourselves and learn about the world.”

Do good, feel good (and vice-versa) effects

According to this theory, when you are in a good mood - because someone did something as small as holding the door open for you or saying thank you, to as big as you getting an A on a very hard exam or your friend gives you a gift - you feel good and you try to help other people and "do good" to others. It has a domino effect and passes on from person to person very quickly.

Seligman's research on character, signature strengths, and traits

Core Virtues and Signature Strengths

Wisdom and Knowledge

Curiosity

Love of Learning

Judgment / Critical Thinking / Open Mindedness

Creativity

Emotional Intelligence

Perspective

Courage

Bravery and Valor

Perseverance and Industriousness

Honesty / Integrity / Genuineness

 Humanity and Love

Kindness and Generosity

Loving and Allowing Yourself to be Loved

Justice

Citizenship / Duty / Teamwork / Loyalty

Fairness and Equity

Leadership

Temperance

Self-Control

Caution and Discretion

Humility and Modesty

Transcendence

Appreciation of Beauty and Excellence

Gratitude

Optimism and Hope

Spirituality

Forgiveness and Mercy

Humor and Playfulness

Enthusiasm / Zest / Passion

KEYTERMS

Authoritative Parenting - Parents who are involved, warm, and nurturing while at the same time setting meaningful limits and controls for the child   

Conditional Positive Regard – Occurs when a parent judges a child's value and delivers their love based on the acceptability of the child's behavior at the moment.          

Character – The development of virtues and their corresponding signature strengths.     

Cognitive Distortions – The tendency to look for verification to support your existing opinion of yourself    

Conditions of Worth – When an individual thinks they are worthwhile or lovable only if they behave in certain ways or meet certain standards.       

Ideal Self – The person you feel you should be        

Inferiority Complex – Describes an individual with chronically low self esteem.

Malevolent Attitude – The belief that one is surrounded by enemies; a belief that one is detestable and deserves to be treated poorly

Permissive-Indulgent Parenting – Parent who are involved and loving with their children but fail to set limits or provide meaningful controls over their behavior.  

Permissive-Indifferent Parenting – Parenting that is not particularly harsh or punitive, but treats child as if she is not particularly important uninvolved in child's life          

Pathological Critic – A negative inner voice that attacks and judges you  

Real Self – The person you feel you actually are     

Self-Esteem – A measure of how much you value yourself and feel useful and necessary in the world.        

Self-Concept – Your paradigm about yourself reflected in how you might describe yourself.

Self-Worth – The degree to which you feel worthwhile as a human being within the standards of your culture,     

Service Learning – The combination of community service and classroom instruction with a focus on critical, reflective thinking as well as personal and civic responsibility.

Signature Strengths – Those behaviors that traits which characterize the presence of a virtue in an individual 's character and which can be developed by exercising proactive choice; not the same as talents.

Traits – A psychological characteristic exemplified by consistent behaviors across time, place, and situations. 

Unconditional Positive Regard – Occurs when a parent demonstrates acceptance of a child as having intrinsic merit regardless of their behavior at the moment.        

Virtues – Strengths that are valued in every culture, valued in their own right, and are changeable by choice and exercise of will.  

Chapter 5

Research on stress; what it is, positive and negative stress, and the different types of stress

There are as many definitions of stress as there are books about stress. Below are two definitions. You will come across many others in this course:

•           Stress is anything that requires an adaptive response on the part of the organism.

•           Stress is your body's response to change.

You should also note that there is positive stress and negative stress.

Positive stress is known as Eustress: it helps motivate and energize you and gives your life meaning and excitement.

Negative stress is known as Distress: it has detrimental physical, psychological, and workplace consequences.

Types of Stress

 

Frustration, conflict, change, pressure

Frustration - situations in which pursuit of goal is thwarted.

Conflict - occurs any time you have to decide between two or more incompatible goals or behaviors; comes in three types approach, avoidance and approach- avoidance.

Change - creates stress by change.

Pressure - perform and conform causes stress

o   Acute stress

Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It comes from demands and pressures of the recent past and anticipated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute stressors are threatening events with short durations and clear endpoints.

o   Episodic acute stress

There are those, however, who suffer acute stress frequently, whose lives are so disordered that they are studies in chaos and crisis. They're always in a rush, but always late. If something can go wrong, it does. They take on too much, have too many irons in the fire, and can't organize the slew of self-inflicted demands and pressures clamoring for their attention. They seem perpetually in the clutches of acute stress.

o   Chronic stress

This is the grinding stress that wears people away day after day, year after year. Chronic stress destroys bodies, minds and lives. It wreaks havoc through long-term attrition. It's the stress of poverty, of dysfunctional families, of being trapped in an unhappy marriage or in a despised job or career. Chronic stress comes when a person never sees a way out of a miserable situation. It's the stress of unrelenting demands and pressures for seemingly interminable periods of time. With no hope, the individual gives up searching for solutions. Chronic stressors are threatening events with long durations and no apparent endpoint.

Important Facts about Stress

Stress management is the ability to manage your stress.

Stress mastery is the ability to achieve mastery over stress.

There are two important facts you should know about stress:

It is impossible to get rid of stress. Stress is an inescapable part of modern life. As a result, you have two choices: you can manage your stress the best you can, or you can learn to master it. Stress management is a short-term solution while stress mastery is a long-term solution. Stress mastery involves adopting a number of physical and cognitive strategies and attitudes that will change the way you live your life.

Many tasks are best performed with moderate levels of stress. (Yerkes-Dodson Law) If you are under-aroused (too little stress) you will experience the stress of boredom. If you are over-aroused (too much stress) you will experience anxiety. If you can find your optimal level, when you are stimulated and performing at your best, you can experience satisfaction and master stress.

Fight or flight response: what it is, what it does to the body and its role in stress

The Fight or Flight Response (FFR) is a physiological mechanism present in humans and most animals that prepares us to deal with physical danger. The FFR has been around since mankind's earliest days. The response works like this: the hypothalamus sends a message to your adrenal glands and instantly changes take place in your body that prepares your body to fight or to flee. The response consists of a series of physiological reactions.

When alerted by any of a number of brain pathways, increases heart rate and respiration, diverts blood from the digestion to the skeletal muscles, and dulls pain and releases sugar and fat from the body's stores- to prepare the body for the wonderfully adaptive response of

Signs of Fight/Flight Activation

Rapid, shallow breathing

Pounding heart

Rapid pulse

Elevated blood pressure

Muscular tension

Tremors

Stomach tightens

Perspiration increases

            Attention span narrows

Field of vision narrows

Cold, clammy hands

Can’t sit still

Racing thoughts

Inability to concentrate

Dr

Jaw clenching

y mouth

Gripping emotions

Yerkes-Dodson Law - Many tasks are best performed with moderate levels of stress.

Evidences arousal theory; the more complex a task, the lower level of arousal that can be tolerated without interference before the performance deteriorates; ex. - driving to school, driving angry, finding a new location, boiling an egg.       

Homeostasis - Homeostasis refers to the body's need to reach and maintain a certain state of equilibrium. The term is often used to refer to the body's tendency to monitor and maintain internal states such as temperature and energy levels at fairly constant and stable levels.

Physical, Psychological and Workplace Consequences of Stress

Physical Consequences of Stress

Stress has been linked to the 6 leading causes of death in the U.S.: heart disease, cancer, lung ailments, accidents, cirrhosis of the liver, and suicide. Stress has also been linked to osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, gastrointestinal disorders, cholesterol levels, colds and viruses, chronic pain, migraines, and acne. The strongest evidence that stress causes illness to date is the link between the stress hormone glucocorticoid and the functioning of the immune system. Glucocorticoid causes white blood cells to travel to the bone marrow where they cluster around the spinal cord, making them less available to fight disease. This can lead to a weakened immune system that in turn can lead to an increased susceptibility to disease.

Psychological Consequences of Stress

Stress is a major factor in the development of anxiety, phobias, panic attacks, depression, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, obsessions, compulsions and most major psychiatric disorders.

Depression has been linked to stress in a number of studies. For example, stress has been demonstrated to alter serotonin pathways. Imbalances in serotonin levels have been linked to depression and in some cases aggression. The World Health Organization reports depression as the number one cause of disability worldwide. Over 30 million Americans suffer from insomnia. About 24 million use drugs to cope with stress: the three best selling drugs in the U.S. are for stress-related disorders (ulcers, hypertension, and anxiety). Relief of stress and anxiety is one of the primary motives for the use and abuse of alcohol.

Workplace Consequences of Stress

Negative stress impedes concentration. People are more accident-prone during periods of stress, resulting in over 2million disabling injuries per year, more than 15,000 deaths, and over $3 billion dollars in lost productivity. Murphy (1987) proposed a stress-accident model which hypothesizes that stress symptoms have a detrimental effect on a worker's capabilities (like attention and reaction times) which leads to an increased risk of accidents. Stress has been reported to cause at least $10 billion dollars annually to industry in absenteeism. Chronic pain alone accounts for 700 million lost work days alone at a cost of $60 billion per year. At least 25% of workers in the U.S. suffer from stress overload; 37% report daily job stress; 75% report significant stress at least once a week. Stressed workers are at risk of burnout which has significant consequences (see graphic below). A 1998 Gallup poll found 80% of all surveyed workers reported being significantly stressed at work, women feeling more stressed out than the men, and stress increasing as income levels rose. Increased stress at work has now been linked to a new phenomenon known as desk rage. While workplace stress occasionally erupts into violence and death, desk rage is far more common and ranges from anger over being treated rudely by co-workers or customers, to arguments, destruction of employer property, and far more costly to the employer, employees quitting jobs, calling in sick, slowing down the pace at work, and other counter-productive work behaviors (Miami Herald, 2000, p.1E).

Placebo effect - There are well-documented cases involving placebo effects, an improvement in the condition of a patient that occurs in response to treatment but cannot be considered due to the specific treatment use.

The placebo effect refers to the phenomenon in which some people experience some type of benefit after the administration of a placebo. A placebo is a substance with no known medical effects, such as sterile water, saline solution or a sugar pill. In short, a placebo is a fake treatment that in some cases can produce a very real response. The expectations of the patient play an important role in the placebo effect; the more a person expects the treatment to work, the more likely they are to exhibit a placebo response.

Cortisol is and its role in stress

Cortisol is a stress hormones released by adrenal glands linked to hypertension, asteroclorosis, heart disease, weight gain and immune system repression.

Stress causes the adrenal gland to secrete a stress hormone known as cortisol, which has been linked to increases in free fatty acids in the bloodstream, which contributes to buildup of plaque in the linings of blood vessels. Plaque causes narrowing of the arteries, which combines to produce hypertension, atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Heart disease is the number one killer of both men and women in the U.S. today.

Ulcers and other gastro-intestinal disorders are the direct result of elevated acidity brought on by the release of cortisol. These disorders are classified as psychophysiological disorders, which are illnesses that are triggered and exacerbated by stress. Often, the symptoms don't show up until after the stress is over. The stomach, for example is more vulnerable to ulceration after a long period of stress is over (Sapolsky, 1994). Studies show that 80% of all doctor’s office visits are for stress-related complaints or illnesses; 43% of all adults suffer adverse health effects from stress.

KEYTERMS

Bruxism - Teeth grinding at night     

Cortisol - Stress hormone released by adrenal glands linked to hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart disease, weight gain, and immune system suppression.       

Distress - Negative stress     

Eustress - Positive stress      

Endorphins - The body's naturally produced pain killers    

Fight/Flight Response            - A survival mechanism present in humans and most animals that prepares us to deal with physical danger.          

General Adaptation Syndrome(Gas) - A three stage process(alarm, resistance, exhaustion) that describes how stress related symptoms and illnesses emerge in the body.      

Glucocorticoids- Stress hormones known to weaken immune functioning leading to an increased susceptibility to diseases. 

Homeostasis- The natural tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state in order to ensure physical survival.     

Psychoneuroimmunology - The study of the relationship between stress, our immune system and health outcomes in order to uncover the workings of the mind-body connection to facilitate the healing of illnesses  

Placebo Effect - The phenomenon that occurs when an individual responds to a treatment or drug because of their belief in it or their expectation that it will work rather than any actual power of the treatment or drug.        

Psychophysiological Disorder - Illness that are triggered and exacerbated by stress        

Stress Mastery            - The weaving of stress reduction techniques into the fabric of your life in a way that adds time, increases awareness, and cultivates wisdom. 

Stress - Anything that requires and adaptive response on the part of the organism; anything that requires you to respond or to make a change or an adjustment.           

Stress Sensitization - The tendency to respond to stress in the same way that we respond to an allergy, that is, the body overreacts to minor stresses as if they were major ones.        

Chapter 6

 

Wellness and its application in the field of psychology

Health Psychology is a specialty area within the field of psychology that primarily focuses on utilizing psychological and behavior change principles to improve health, reduce symptoms of illness and prevent illness. Numerous medical conditions and problems are either caused by or worsened by emotional factors and lifestyle choices. For example, stress and depression can lead to insomnia, increased pain, appetite and weight changes, or increased alcohol or substance use.

Health psychologists work with clients to develop and implement healthier lifestyle choices, learn relaxation and stress reduction techniques, improve coping skills, adjust to medical issues, prepare for surgery, and adhere to treatment programs.

 Some of the medical conditions that often respond well to health psychology interventions include:

o   Tension & Migraine Headaches

o   Irritable Bowel Syndrome & Other Gastrointestinal Problems

o   Asthma & Respiratory Problems

o   Pain Conditions

o   Insomnia & Sleep Disorders

o   Diabetes

o   High Blood Pressure

o   High Cholesterol

o   Obesity

o   MS & other Neurological Conditions

o   Cancer

Social Support and Wellness

●People in stable relationships with strong social networks are happier

●Married men tend to live longer than single men

●Cancer patients in positive support groups are more likely to go into remission and live longer

●Those who are lonely are more at risk for heart disease

 What relaxation is, what it does, and the types of relaxation

 

Relaxation: the emotional state of a living being, of low tension, in which there is an absence of arousal that could come from sources such as anger, anxiety, or fear. Relaxation is a form of mild ecstasy coming from the frontal lobe of the brain in which the backward cortex sends signals to the frontal cortex via a mild sedative. Relaxation helps improve coping with stress.

Relaxation Types:

 Autogenic training: This technique uses both visual imagery and body awareness to move a person into a deep state of relaxation. The person imagines a peaceful place and then focuses on different physical sensations, moving from the feet to the head. For example, one might focus on warmth and heaviness in the limbs, easy, natural breathing, or a calm heartbeat.

 Breathing: In breathing techniques, you place one hand on your chest and the other on your belly. Take a slow, deep breath, sucking in as much air as you can. As you're doing this, your belly should push against your hand. Hold your breath and then slowly exhale.

 Progressive muscle relaxation: This technique involves slowly tensing and then releasing each muscle group individually, starting with the muscles in the toes and finishing with those in the head.

 Meditation: The two most popular forms of meditation in the U.S. include Transcendental Meditation (students repeat a mantra -- a single word or phrase) and mindfulness meditation (students focus their attention on their thoughts and sensations).

Stress hardiness

Stress hardiness- ability to capably deal with stressors, attitudes include control, commitment and challenge these attitudes are referred to as the three c’s.

o   Control Stress- hardy individuals believe they are in control of their lives.

o   Commitment- believing that what you do is of value and importance         

o   Challenge- focus not so much on danger but on opportunities

Stress Management

Stress Management: the ability to manage your stress.

Recommendations on Stress Mastery

Mastering Stress starts taking control of the stress in your life and proactively doing things that can counter the psychological, emotional, and physical causes of stress.

  Don't overwork

  Have healthy outlets

  Build a social support network

  Increase your resources

  Exercise

  Rest

  Eat well

  Use relaxation techniques

How to Cope with Stress

o   Breathe slowly, deeply, and fully

o   Cultivate awareness

o   Adopt the witness stance

o   Adopt the Stress Hardiness Attitudes

o   Control

o   Commitment

o   Challenge

o   Listen to your body

o   Develop body wisdom

o   Practice Progressive Muscle Relaxation

o   Stretch your muscles

Research on neurotransmitters and what they do

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries, boosts and modulates signals between neurons and other cells in the body. In most cases, a neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal after an action potential has reached the synapse. The neurotransmitter then crosses the synaptic gap to reach the receptor site of the other cell or neuron. Then, in a process known as reuptake, the neurotransmitter attaches to the receptor site and is reabsorbed by the neuron.

Neurotransmitters play a major role in everyday life and functioning. Scientists do not yet know exactly how many neurotransmitters exist, but more than 100 chemical messengers have been identified. When neurotransmitters are affected by disease or drugs, there can be a number of different adverse effects on the body. Diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's are associated with deficits in certain neurotransmitters.

Types of Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters can be classified by function:

Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have excitatory effects on the neuron; they increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the major excitatory neurotransmitters include epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have inhibitory effects on the neuron; they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the major inhibitory neurotransmitters include serotonin and GABA

Some neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine, can both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending upon the type of receptors that are present.

 Research on the Benefits of Exercise

 

The psychological benefits of exercise are often overlooked. Today’s society greatly focuses on the physical benefits of exercise, such as weight loss, toned muscles and “six-pack abs.” Although these are remarkable benefits, the psychological benefits can be just as, if not more significant than the physical benefits dependent on your needs and goals.

Research has shown that regular exercise delivers a mental and emotional boost. It improves your mood, bolsters your self-esteem and gives you the confidence to handle whatever comes your way. Some studies hint that it also enhances the functioning of your brain.

Benefits of Exercise

  Lowered anxiety and muscular tension

  Improved sense of wellbeing, decreased depression

  Greater ability to handle everyday and workplace stress

  Increased endorphin production

  Decreased production of the stress hormones adrenaline and cortisol

  Improved concentration and productivity

  Quicker recoveries from acute stress (fight or flight reaction)

  Reduced blood pressure and resting heart rate

              More restful sleep

  Less fatigue, more energy and stamina

  Stronger heart muscle that works more efficiently

  Improved cardiovascular functioning

  Lower risk of heart disease

  Fewer physical complaints in general

  Boosts immune functioning

  Increased metabolic rate – easier weight loss

  A more attractive physique

  Improved muscle-to-fat ratio

  Better self-image and stronger self-confidence

Psychosomatic Disorders

Psychosomatic Disorders, also called somatoform disorders, are physical conditions with symptoms (or perceived symptoms) that are manifestations of psychological distress.  These manifestations are identical to its corresponding physiological disorder. A person with a psychosomatic disorder may, for example, experience frequent headaches and be improperly diagnosed with a headache disorder. Indeed, the person suffers from a deeper issue: a psychiatric disorder. This is determined by the health team after all possible organic causes have been eliminated. Psychosomatic disorders may be physical manifestations of anxiety and mood disorders, and especially of stress disorders following psychological trauma. 

When a condition is psychosomatic, that means that it involves both the mind and the body. A psychosomatic illness originates with emotional stress or damaging thought patterns, and progresses with physical symptoms, usually when a person's immune system is compromised due to stress. A common misconception is that a psychosomatic condition is imaginary, or "all in someone's mind". Actually, the physical symptoms of psychosomatic conditions are real, and should be treated quickly, as with any other illness.

 Morphic Resonance

 

The means by which information or an activity-pattern is transferred from a previous to a subsequent system of the same kind is called Morphic resonance. Any given Morphic system, say a squirrel, “tunes in” to previous similar systems, in this case previous squirrels of its species. Morphic resonance thus involves the influence of like upon like, the influence of patterns of activity on subsequent similar patterns of activity, an influence that passes through or across space and time from past to present. These influences do not to fall off with distance in space or time. The greater the degree of similarity of the systems involved, the greater the influence of Morphic resonance.

Morphic resonance gives an inherent memory in fields at all levels of complexity. In the case of squirrels, each individual squirrel draws upon, and in turn contributes to, a collective or pooled memory of its kind. In the human realm, this kind of collective memory corresponds to what the psychologist C.G. Jung called the collective unconscious.

Morphic resonance should be detectable in the realms of physics, chemistry, biology, animal behavior, psychology and the social sciences.

KEYTERMS

Wellness- integration of the mind body and spirit, associated primarily with physical fitness awareness used to move up the ladder towards higher state of wellness     

Active relaxation- becoming aware of your body and physiological reactions so you can consciously reduce your level of arousal passive relaxation things like watching TV to relax do not work.

Diaphragmatic breathing – natural antidote to stress; involves deep, slow, rhythmic breaths.

Hyperventilation - a rapid shallow type of over breathing reduces levels of carbon dioxide and calcium in blood.

Self–awareness - to become aware of yourself.       

Witnessing stance- both eastern and western technique describes our ability to stand apart from ourselves, becoming a witness in your life, shift in perspective provides possibility you can change a particular situation.          

Metacognition            - becoming aware of your thought process   

Metamood - becoming aware of your emotions       

Stress hardiness- ability to capably deal with stressors, attitudes include control, commitment and challenge these attitudes are referred to as the three c’s.

Control stress hardy individuals believe they are in control of their lives.

Commitment- believing that what you do is of value and importance          

Challenge- focus not so much on danger but on opportunities        

Problem focused coping - attempts to deal with the stressor head on, to remove or defuse its effects.           

Emotion focused coping- more indirect method, attempts are made to moderate ones emotional response to stressor.

Resilience- increase ability to cope with common daily stressors  

Body wisdom- not about how thoughts affect your body but about how your body affects your thoughts 

Warrior’s stance- warriors are peaceful and have internal battles, display a relaxed posture           

Progressive relaxation - induce a feeling of relaxation in your body, you can’t be stressed

Autogenic training - talking yourself into relaxation, repeating certain phases while focusing your attention on a particular muscle group

Differential relaxation - being able to contract only those muscles which are necessary to accomplish the task at hand, while keeping all other muscles relaxed

Meditation - works to reduce and relive pain to lower blood pressure and the advance of arteriosclerosis

Beginners mind - seeing things as you would have for the first time

Tia chi - a moving meditation

Qi gong - a focus on the movement of energy

Mindfulness - the cultivation of awareness by practicing awareness

Hatha yoga - a branch of yoga that emphasizes physical posture

Psychosomatic illness - where a physical disorder is affected or in some cases even caused by stress and or emotional physiological factors; medical problems caused by the interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties.

Aerobic exercise - conditions your cardiovascular system

Flexibility training - maintains healthy joints, good posture , body alignment and capacity to move the body

Serotonin - Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal

Chapter 7

What are goals and why do they matter to effectiveness

A goal is an action plan. If you are going to effectively manage your life and time, you need to have clear goals. You will be faced with many decisions in your life. Some will be big ones (taking a job in another city, getting married, and having children) and others will be small (what to do or not to do today, this week, this month, and this semester).

There are many different types of goals:

There are life goals, and long-term goals, and short-term goals to name a few. So goals will be a fundamental part of your life and you will need to do a lot of thinking about goals if you want to maximize your chances of accomplishing everything.

Six Steps for Securing Your Goals

o   Step 1 – State your goal in positive terms, in a way that you can achieve it regardless of the behavior of others

o   Step 2 – Know how you will know when your goal is reached

o   Step 3 – Describe your goal as specifically as possible

o   Step 4 – Is your goal compatible with your other goals?

o   Step 5 – Assess what you need in order to reach your goal

o   Step 6 – Make a plan

Visualization

Imagery and visualization can be very powerful tools in your goal achievement process. You can use visual images of your goals or you can use words, thoughts and feelings. Ideally you can use all of these elements to unleash the most powerful potential of imagery.

Scientific studies show that the more senses you add to your imagery, the more powerful the results will be. The reason these techniques are so powerful is that they tap into both the left and right parts of your brain. For people who have trouble seeing things with their eyes closed, just use all the other senses to imagine what you want to create.

The Process of Visualization

  Begin by mastering relaxation skills

  Garbage in, garbage out

  Incorporate all your senses for imagery

  Use participant and observer imagery

  Pick a model and vividly imagine that person achieving your desired goal

  Step into the picture and substitute yourself for the model

  Let go and be patient

What are Mission Statements and what is their role in effectiveness?

Mission Statement

  A statement of your largest goals based on your largest beliefs

  The kind of person you want to be

  What do you value?

  Finding a balance

  It is important to consider all the major roles in your life

  Imagine you have made it to 100 years old

Specifies what activities an organization intends to pursue and what course management has charted for the future.

Representational systems

Representational systems (also known as sensory modalities and abbreviated to VAKOG or known as the 4-tuple) is a postulated model from neuro-linguistic programming regarding how the human mind supposedly processes and stores information. The central idea of this model is that experience is represented in the mind in sensorial terms, i.e. in terms of the putative five senses.

According to Bandler and Grinder our chosen words, phrases and sentences are indicative of our referencing of each of the representational systems. So for example the words "black", "clear", "spiral" and "image" reference the visual representation system; similarly the words "tinkling", "silent", "squeal" and "blast" reference the auditory representation system. Bandler and Grinder also propose that ostensibly metaphorical or figurative language indicates a reference to a representational system such that it is actually literal. For example, the comment "I see what you're saying" is taken to indicate a visual representation.

Further, Bandler and Grinder claim that each person has a "most highly valued" (now commonly termed preferred) representational system in which they are more able to vividly create an experience (in their mind) in terms of that representational system, tend to use that representational system more often than the others, and have more distinctions available in that representation system than the others. So for example a person that most highly values their visual representation system is able to easily and vividly visualise things and has a tendency to do so in preference to creating or recreating an experience in terms of the other representational system.

Appreciative Inquiry

Appreciative Inquiry is an approach to change that seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organization, which can then be built on to improve performance.

To understand the basis of Appreciative Inquiry it is useful to look at the meaning of the two words in context.

  Appreciation means to recognize and value the contributions or attributes of things and people around us.

  Inquiry means to explore and discover, in the spirit of seeking to better understand, and being open to new possibilities.

When combined, this means that by appreciating what is good and valuable in the present situation, we can discover and learn about ways to effect positive change for the future.

Transpersonal Psychology – Explores the overlap between the realms of psychology and spirituality.

Collective Unconscious – A storehouse of experiences to which all of us are connected.

Synchronicity - Meaningful coincidences; when two independent events come together in a meaningful way.

 Chapter 8

 

Research and findings on effectiveness

Covey's Time Management System

Recommends that you organize your schedule around priorities rather than prioritize your schedule.

Q I: Urgent and Important

 Crises

 Pressing Problems

 Projects with Deadlines

 Some Meetings

 Some Preparations

            Q III: Urgent Not Important

 Interruptions

 Some Phone Calls

 Some Meetings

 Some Reports / Some Mail

 Many Pressing Matters

Q II: Important Not Urgent

 Long Range Planning

 Proactive Activities

 Networking

 Relationship Building

 Prevention Maintenance

            Q IV: Not Urgent or Important

 Busywork / Trivia

 Some Phone Calls

 Some Mail / Junk Mail

 Pleasant Activities

Procrastination, why it happens, and how it is maintained

Procrastination: the action of delaying or postponing something: your first tip is to avoid procrastination.

Procrastination at its core is a war. It is a war between two separate parts of your brain that want two separate things. This is why fighting procrastination generally involves an inner monologue where you are arguing with yourself about why you should really be working.

The fight is between your Limbic System and the Prefrontal Cortex. Your Limbic System is that part of your brain that wants you to keep watching TV for a few more minutes or go get a cake to eat instead of working. Your Prefrontal Cortex on the other hand is the one that is thinking about your future self and is telling you that you should probably get to work and you have a lot to do.

Sadly, for most of us the Limbic System generally keeps winning this fight. This is because our Limbic System is powerful. Where your Prefrontal cortex is quite new in evolutionary terms and tends to get tired fast, your Limbic System is one of the oldest portions of your brain and houses your unconscious drives and emotions. It also happens to be directly connected to your pleasure center. To make matters worse it is automatic, this means it is the default part of your brain that controls you the second you stop being consciously engaged in a task. And what happens the second it takes over? You procrastinate.

Useful Tips to Overcome Procrastination

  Use the Bits and Pieces Approach (i.e. doable chunks)

  Get organized

  Make lists

  Create a realistic schedule

  Do it when you think of it

  Modify your work environment to reduce distractions

  Use the 5 Minute Method to get started

  Don’t wait for inspiration

  Reward yourself

  View mistakes as feedback

Premack Principle and the Pareto Principle

Premack's principle, or the relativity theory of reinforcement, states that more probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors. A more probable behavior can be used as reinforcement for a less probable one.

Pareto Principle (also known as the 80–20 rule, the law of the vital few, and the principle of factor sparsity) states that, for many events, roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes.

Study Skills

Eight Strategies for Success

Focus first on high priority items

Group related tasks and do them together

Get organized

Break it into doable chunks

Develop and use timetables

Focus on one important thing at a time

Finish it fully

Do it when you think of it

Retroactive Interference and Proactive Interference

Interference theory separates memories into chronological order based on when they were made to understand how it is people have trouble recalling information.

Retroactive interference occurs when you are trying to recall something you committed to memory in the past and some similar thing you've learned since that time obstructs your ability to correctly call what you want to mind.

Proactive interference occurs when you are trying to recall something you've memorized relatively recently and a separate, past memory muddles the one you wish to recollect.